Research

This page serves to provide ongoing research on adoptees for the purpose of informing ourselves and bringing awareness to the community of the need for lifelong support for adoptees and amongst adoptees. Listed are some highlights from peer-reviewed research articles that provide empirically-supported evidence. Our desire is that you read beyond the research highlights and seek out further context of the research findings in the articles. References for research articles are listed beneath the highlights.

“The relevance of infant adoption stems from the fact that from the early twentieth century through to the 1970s, the dominant type of adoption in many western countries (e.g., England, the United States, Australia, New Zealand) involved infants who were born out-of-wedlock, and whose adoption was based on secrecy and anonymity” (Hoksbergen & ter Laak, 2005). 

“The results underline that adoption is a lifelong process and experience, not a static one-time event that happens early on in the life of adoptees. Furthermore, adoption is not a completely isolated or individual experience, but it is one that is influenced by important family relationships and experienced as a series of family processes over time” (Farr, et al., 2014).

“Future adoption research, practice, and policy may need to shift from parent-focused questions relating to how to raise adopted children, to a life-course perspective of understanding the lifelong and intergenerational impact of adoption on the lives of adopted persons.” (Baden, et. al., 2019).

Adoptees in the U.S. have been reported to be 4x more likely to attempt suicide compared with non-adoptees (Keyes, et al., 2014).

“Over 8o% of the 485 respondents (84% of adoptive parents and 77% of adoptees) reported working with at least one mental health professional, but slightly fewer than 25% believed the professionals were assessed by respondents as adoption-competent” (Wiley, 2017; Atkinson, Gonet, Freundlich, & Riley, 2013).

“Adoptee advocacy groups such as the American Adoption Congress continue to work in each U.S. state to change laws related to denial of access to original birth certificates (OBC’s) to adults who were adopted. The platform is that citizens who were adopted are the only class of citizens who are denied information about themselves by their government” (Wiley, 2017).

“Studies suggest that transracial adoptive parents’ cultural competence and the extent to which adopted children are exposed to their culture of origin are positively related to adoptee’s ethnic identity.” (Mohanty, Keokse, & Sales, 2007).

“It is also possible that altered HPA axis activity might constitute a vulnerability marker increasing risk for affective disorders only in combination with further stress experience, and therefore influence mental health outcomes not until later in life. Mechanistically, relative hypocortisolism may result in diminished counter-regulatory control of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and the immune system, leading to hyperactivity in these systems” (Kumsta, et al., 2017; Fries, et al., 2005).

“Severe psychosocial deprivation experienced in early childhood is associated with alterations in the regulation of the HPA axis about 20 years after adoption. It cannot be ruled out that disturbed cortisol regulation is a late appearing consequence of institutional deprivation.” (Kumsta, et al., 2017).

“Hypothalamic-pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) axis function is disrupted in institutionally-deprived children–reduced morning cortisol, flattened diurnal slope, and blunted reactivity persist even after successful adoption into positive family environments… Time-limited exposure to severe institutional deprivation in early childhood followed by adoption into nurturing families is associated with altered HPA axis regulation into young adulthood.” (Kumsta, et al., 2017).

“Overall, the findings support the call to view the adoption experience as a “lifelong process” (Borders et al., 2000), and suggest that attachment principles can be usefully applied in examining these issues” (Feeney, Passmore, & Peterson, 2007; Levy & Orlans, 2003).

“Research has repeatedly documented that open communication about adoption is related to more positive parent-child relationships and better psychological adjustment.” (Wiley, 2017; Brodzinsky, 2006, 2012).

“This work recognizes the traumatizing nature of loss and rejection, the self-fulfilling nature of working models, and the therapeutic effect of interventions that focus on the need for secure emotional connections. Such interventions may offer a useful approach for those struggling with adoption-related issues (including reunions), and those dealing with other complex family experiences such as foster care” (Feeney, Passmore, & Peterson, 2007; Levy & Orlans, 2003).

“Interestingly, only reports of the initial reunion with birth mothers (as opposed to current closeness and satisfaction) were linked to adult attachment security.” (Feeney, Passmore, & Peterson, 2007).

“Perceptions of care and affection from mothers and fathers during childhood were particularly relevant in predicting adult attachment security” (Feeney, Passmore, & Peterson, 2007).

References

Atkinson, A. J., Gonet, P. A., Freundlich, M., & Riley, D. B. (2013). Adoption competent clinical practice: Defining its meaning and development. Adoption Quarterly, 16(3-4), 156–174.

Baden, A. L. (2002). The psychological adjustment of transracial adoptees: an application of the cultural-racial identity model. Journal of Social Distress and the Homeless, 11(2), 167-191.

Baden, A. L., Shadel, D., Morgan, R., White, E. E., Harrington, E. S., Christian, N., & Bates, T. A. (2019). Delaying adoption disclosure: a survey of late discovery adoptees. Journal of Family Issues, 40(9), 1154-1180.

Borders, L. D., Penny, J. M., & Portnoy, F. (2000). Adult adoptees and their friends: current functioning and psychosocial well-being. Family Relations, 49, 407-418. 

Brodzinsky, D. M. (2011). Children’s understanding of adoption: developmental and clinical implications. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 42(2), 200.

Corder, K. (2012). Counseling adult adoptees. The Family Journal, 20(4), 448-452.

Darnell, F. J., Johansen, A. B., Tavakoli, S., & Brugnone, N. (2017). Adoption and identity experiences among adult transnational adoptees: a qualitative study. Adoption Quarterly, 20(2), 155-166.

Farr, R. H., Grant‐Marsney, H. A., & Grotevant, H. D. (2014). Adoptees’ contact with birth parents in emerging adulthood: the role of adoption communication and attachment to adoptive parents. Family Process, 53(4), 656-671.

Feeney, J. A., Passmore, N. L., & Peterson, C. C. (2007). Adoption, attachment, and relationship concerns: a study of adult adoptees. Personal Relationships, 14(1), 129-147.

Friedlander, M.L., Larney, L.C., Skau, M., Hotaling, M., Cutting, M.L., & Schwan, M. (2000). Bicultural identification: experiences of internationally adopted children and their parents. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 47(2), 187-198.

Fries, E., Hesse, J., Hellhammer, J., Hellhammer, D.H. (2005). A new view of hypocortisolism. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 20, 1010-1016.

Grigoropoulos, I. (2022). Adoption openness and adoption stigma: a retrospective study of adult adoptees. SN Soc Sci 2, 34.

Hoksbergen, R.A.C. & Laak, J.J.F.. (2005). Changing attitudes of adoptive parents in northern European countries.

Horstman, H. K., Colaner, C. W., & Rittenour, C. E. (2016). Contributing factors of adult adoptees’ identity work and self-esteem: family communication patterns and adoption-specific communication. Journal of Family Communication, 16(3), 263-276.

Jones, C. (2016). Openness in adoption: challenging the narrative of historical progress. Child & Family Social Work, 21(1), 85-93.

Juffer, F., & Van Ijzendoorn, M. H. (2005). Behavior problems and mental health referrals of international adoptees: a meta-analysis. jama, 293(20), 2501-2515.

Juffer, F., & Van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2007). Adoptees do not lack self-esteem: a meta-analysis of studies on self-esteem of transracial, international, and domestic adoptees. Psychological Bulletin, 133(6), 1067.

Keyes, M. A., Malone, S. M., Sharma, A., Iacono, W. G., & McGue, M. (2013). Risk of suicide attempt in adopted and nonadopted offspring. Pediatrics, 132(4), 639–646.

Kumsta, R., Schlotz, W., Golm, D., Moser, D., Kennedy, M., Knights, N., … & Sonuga-Barke, E. (2017). HPA axis dysregulation in adult adoptees twenty years after severe institutional deprivation in childhood. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 86, 196-202.

Levy, T. M., & Orlans, M. (2003). Creating and repairing attachments in biological, foster, and adoptive families. In S. M. Johnson & V. E. Whiffen (Eds.), Attachment processes in couple and family therapy (pp. 165-190). New York: Guilford. 

McGinnis, H. A., Baden, A. L., Kim, A. Y., & Kim, J. (2019). Generational shifts: Adult adoptee scholars’ perspective on future research and practice. Rudd Adoption Research Program at UMass Amherst: Future of Adoption Publication Series.

Melero, S., Verdugo, L., & Sánchez-Sandoval, Y. (2023). Psychological wellbeing in adult adoptees: current age and developmental tasks. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1190147.

Mohanty, J., Keokse, G., & Sales, E. (2007). Family cultural socialization, ethnic identity, and self-esteem: web-based survey of international adult adoptees. Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Diversity in Social Work, 15(3-4), 153-172.

Neil, E., Morciano, M., Young, J., & Hartley, L. (2020). Exploring links between early adversities and later outcomes for children adopted from care: implications for planning post adoption support. Developmental Child Welfare, 2(1), 52-71.

Palacios, J., Rolock, N., Selwyn, J., & Barbosa-Ducharne, M. (2019). Adoption breakdown: concept, research, and implications. Research on Social Work Practice, 29(2), 130-142.

Passmore, N., Feeney, J., & Foulstone, A. (2007). Secrecy within adoptive families and its impact on adult adoptees. Family Relationships Quarterly, (5), 3-5.

Pinderhughes, E., Matthews, J., Deoudes, G., & Pertman, A. (2013). A changing world: Shaping best practices through understanding of the new realities of inter country adoption. New York, NY: Donaldson Adoption Institute.

Reitz, M., & Watson, K. W. (1992). Adoption and the family system. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

Sánchez-Sandoval, Y., Melero, S., & López-Jiménez, A. M. (2020). Mediating effects of social support in the association between problems in childhood and adolescence and well-being in adult domestic adoptees. Journal of Happiness Studies, 21, 1183-1198.

Strong, K. A., May, T., McCauley, M., Pean Kirschner, A. L., Jeruzal, J., Wilson, S. L., … & Knight, C. (2017). Adult adoptees’ attitudes regarding the potential use of genetic information to fill the gap in their family health history. Adoption & fostering, 41(2), 159-169.

Ter Meulen, G., Smeets, D., & Juffer, F. (2019). The relation between adult adoptees’ feelings about relinquishment, adoption and satisfaction with life. Adoption & Fostering, 43(2), 192–209.

Van der Vegt, E.J.M., van der Ende, J., Ferdinand, R.F. et al. (2009). Early childhood adversities and trajectories of psychiatric problems in adoptees: evidence for long lasting effects. J Abnorm Child Psychol 37, 239–249.

Walton, J. (2012). Supporting the interests of intercountry adoptees beyond childhood: access to adoption information and identity. Social Policy and Society, 11(3), 443-454.

Wiley, O. Mary. (2017). Adoption research, practice, and societal trends: ten years of progress. American Psychological Association. 72(9), 985-995.